Qing China population growth farmland pressure

Qing China's population tripled

About 100M → 300M

During the 18th century, Qing China's population rose from about 100 million to 300 million, but the amount of land did not grow with it. Farmers had to work ever-smaller holdings more intensively.

Freed Russian serfs often still rented land

The 1861 emancipation freed more than 23 million serfs, but many still needed land from their former masters. Their small communal plots could lack pasture, and serfs had to pay the government for land while landlords received compensation.

AI can discriminate without race or gender inputs

An AI system can still make discriminatory decisions when it excludes race and gender. Inputs such as a person's address or shopping history can act as proxies because they correlate with those attributes.

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Qing China population growth farmland pressure

Qing China's population tripled

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