Columbian exchange Old World diseases Indigenous population decline Americas

European diseases devastated Indigenous populations in the Americas

After 1492, diseases including smallpox, measles and influenza spread through populations with little previous exposure to them. Epidemics contributed to catastrophic mortality across the Americas, alongside warfare, displacement and colonial exploitation. The scale varied greatly between regions, and estimates of the overall population decline remain debated.

Mongol armies used terrifying stories as a weapon

Mongol commanders sometimes spread accounts of brutal punishments inflicted on cities that resisted them. The threat of destruction could persuade other settlements to surrender without a prolonged siege. Psychological warfare complemented the Mongols' mobility and military organization, helping relatively small forces control enormous territories.

A solar eclipse helped make Einstein internationally famous

During the total solar eclipse of 1919, astronomers photographed stars appearing close to the Sun. Their apparent positions shifted because the Sun's gravity bent the light reaching Earth, as Einstein's general relativity predicted. The measurements had limitations, but their announcement became a worldwide sensation and helped establish Einstein's public reputation.

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Columbian exchange Old World diseases Indigenous population decline Americas

European diseases devastated Indigenous populations in the Americas

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