Chagyrskaya Cave Neanderthal drilled molar cavity

A drilled Neanderthal tooth may show pain relief

A Neanderthal molar from Chagyrskaya Cave dates to about 59,000 years ago. A stone tool made a deep hole in its chewing surface. The hole is consistent with an attempt to treat a cavity and ease pain, and wear on the tooth indicates the person survived the procedure.

A tiny excess of matter was enough to build the universe we see

≈1 in 100 million

The early universe contained almost equal amounts of matter and antimatter. When the two destroyed each other, only a tiny excess of matter remained—about one surviving particle for every 100 million original matter particles. That small leftover became the matter around us today.

Animals depend on microbes for vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is produced naturally by certain bacteria and archaea, not by animals or plants. Animals obtain it through their diets or relationships with microorganisms. Humans get B12 mainly from animal-derived foods, fortified products or supplements. A vitamin essential to human health ultimately originates in microbial metabolism.

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Chagyrskaya Cave Neanderthal drilled molar cavity

A drilled Neanderthal tooth may show pain relief

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